Compositional Techniques For Storytelling. Part 2 - Visual Space
Introduction
This post is the second (the first can be found here) of a series based on The Visual Story by Bruce Block, a book I wished I’d discovered many years ago. In the book Bruce explains how filmmakers use visual structure to complement and support the story being told. Many of the ideas of visual structure were laid down as early as 1928 by Russian filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein and built upon by Slavko Vorkapich, a Yugoslavian filmmaker.
It’s important for any readers of this post to understand that my primary interest in visual structure is its use in stills photography, not in film. As such it does not discuss important film specific aspects such as movement (either people or cameras) or how the visual structure might change and adapt during the film in response to the storyline. It’s also important for photographers to note that film has a key advantage over stills photography in that it can establish a visual structure (or several) at the start of the film (the exposition), which can be repeated through-out, in effect subconsciously priming the audience as to what to expect and how to feel. Never-the-less, even without these aspects and advantages, there’s a huge amount that photographers can gain by incorporating the ideas of visual structure in their work.
Please not that the primary purpose of this post is as a personal aide memoire. If other photographers find the topic interesting, you should buy the book, which offers more breadth, depth and more and better examples.
Visual Space
Photographers, filmmakers and painters all face the challenge of representing our three dimensional world in two dimensions. How we choose to respond to this challenge is perhaps one of our first decisions. The representation we choose will go a long way to setting the style and visual structure of our work. In The Visual Story, Bruce Block defines four main ways of representing space: deep space, flat space, limited space and ambiguous space. Each type of space can be used to help tell a story and provoke a reaction in the viewer.
Deep Space
Deep space in cinematography concerns conjuring the illusion of three-dimensional space by using a number of “depth cues”. These cues are “hard wired” into our subconcious based on our experience of the real world.
The street scene of Manhattan above contains a number of “depth cues” that together create the illusion of three-dimensional (or deep) space.
Depth Cues (in order of effectiveness)
A) Convergence - Convergence of lines to a vanishing point is the most powerful depth cue. In the example the pedestrian crossings, road and buildings all converge to a vanishing point positioned in the frame. The more lines of convergence, the greater the effect.
B) Size change - Objects known to be a similar size (in our example the pedestrians) will appear larger when closer and smaller when further away.
C) Textual diffusion - Objects with more detail, contrast and texture, seem closer. Objects with less textual detail will seem further away. Though subtle, in the example there is more texture and contrast in the foreground (the tarmac, the pedestrian crossing and the pedestrian) than in the background.
D) Arial diffusion - Particles in the air (mist, pollution, rain and in the above example, snow) amplifies the loss of texture between foreground and background.
E) Tonal separation – Brighter elements seem closer, darker elements further away. In our example the stripes of the pedestrian crossing are the brightest elements.
F) Colour separation – Warm colours appear closer, cool colours further away. Though subtle, in the example the foreground has been “warmed” and background “cooled” in post processing.
G) Up / Down position – The further the object from the horizon (both below and above) the closer it seems. Objects placed on the horizon line will seem the furthest away. In the example both the subject (the pedestrian) and the framing devices (pedestrian crossing and the bridge) are far from the horizon, aided by the 5:4 vertical aspect ratio.
H) Shape changes – Shapes (e.g.) may “squeeze” when further away. Notice that In the example both the windows in the buildings and the stripes of the pedestrian crossings change shape as they recede into the distance.
I) Overlap – is a minor depth cue, but combined with other cues (e.g. tonal or colour separation) can be made stronger. Notice how both the cars and buildings overlap.
Examples of deep space.
Using Deep Space
Deep space strengthens the illusion of reality, allowing the viewer not just to observe the image (or film), but immerse themselves in it. The stronger their connection with the scene, the greater their emotional reaction to the story being told. As many of the depth cues emphasise contrast, typically deep space is visually intensive and thus provokes a strong reaction in the viewer.
Deep space is perhaps the most common way of representing space in landscape photography, where recording what is in front of the camera realistically and naturally is highly prized. Creating a sense of depth, so that the viewer can “walk into the landscape”, is perhaps the ultimate aim.
Depth cues may already exist when you take the photograph, but they can be added or enhanced in post processing through the subtle use of colour, contrast and texture controls. In our example the contrast and texture has been increased in the foreground and it has been slightly warmed, with the opposite applied to the background.
For a cityscape, with straight lines and points of convergence, the illusion of depth is relatively easy to achieve. For a landscape, without the straight lines of roads and buildings, creating the illusion of depth is perhaps more reliant on the other depth cues.
Flat Space
Flat space is the visual opposite of deep space. It aims to create a two dimensional world. This is achieved by reversing the depth cues outlined above and using other “flat cues”.
The scene of Ljubljana above contains a number of flat space cues.
Flat Space Cues
(A) Frontal Plane - the photograph is taken straight on, emphasising horizontals and verticals and eliminating lines of convergence or longitudinal surface.
(B) Size Consistency - In the example, the sizes of the similar objects are all broadly consistent. Perhaps stronger still is that the “over-sized” faces on the posters reverse a size difference depth clue, bringing them forward and therefore further flattening the image.
(C) Tonal Reduction - The contrast range in the example is limited, making the image appear flatter.
(D) Colour reduction - The colour range in the example is limited, making the image appear flatter.
(E) Textual Consistency - All the elements in the image have broadly the same detail and texture.
(F) Staging on one plane - placing all the objects on one horizontal plane (in the example above by using a shallow depth of field) eliminates many depth cues and therefore flattens the image.
(G) Focus - using selective focus and a shallow depth of field “hides” depth cues that would have otherwise been included in the image.
Using Flat Space
Many of the flat space cues reduce contrast and increase affinity, lessening the visual intensity of the image. In photography this is associated with calmness and tranquility.
Flat space often brings a graphic and stylistic element to the image , pushing forward the subject by simplifying the overall visual structure. Elements are simplified - cubes to squares, spheres to circles - emphasising shapes, texture and pattern. Physically, squashing three dimensions into two condenses the elements in the image, bringing them closer together. Depending on the subject and the staging, the use of flat space might summon up a feeling of togetherness, or perhaps entrapment and claustrophobia.
Just as deep space conjures up reality, flat space does the opposite, making the scene appear abstract or cartoon like (or unreal). Rather than feeling part of story, the viewer is reminded that they are an observer and being told a story. Perhaps to a greater degree than deep space with its emphasis on reality, flat space provides the photographer more leeway to impose their own visual style, or in other words to signal that they are the storyteller.
Examples of flat space
Canadian Edward Burtynsky, a photographer I greatly admire, employs flat space in many of his large scale landscapes. Without the usual depth cues his photographs become abstract studies of form, pattern and colour.
Limited Space
Limited space is a specific combination of deep and flat space, which uses all the deep space cues above to create depth with the key exception of convergence.
Using limited space, the filmmaker can separate the elements into two or three visual planes, allowing the viewer to contrast and compare between them.
I’ve dug though my archives and found very few examples of limited space. As a landscape photographer this is pretty remiss, considering how powerful a tool limited space is for storytelling or even just creating interesting compositions. Perhaps it’s much easier to use limited space in a controlled environment, rather than out in the wild! That said, look through the portfolios of Ernst Haas, Fred Herzog and Saul Leiter, and you’ll find limited space employed to great effect in their street photography.
Ambiguous Space
Ambiguous space occurs when the viewer cannot determine the size of the location or the spatial relationships between objects.
In the example above ambiguity is created by using reflections to confuse the spatial relationships. Other approaches remove clues to scale and / or use unusual camera angles.
Examples of ambiguous space
In film, ambiguous space is often used to disorientate the viewer, generating tension and confusion. In photography, ambiguous space can be used to attract and engage the viewer . Many of Edward Burtynsky’s and Ernst Haas’s images use ambiguous space in different ways to deliberately confuse the viewer, challenging them to look deeper and to solve the puzzle.
Surface Division
A flat surface (an image) can be divided into smaller areas, vertically, horizontally, diagonally or using grids or shapes such as circles. The division line may be caused by almost any object ( tree, doorway, person, lamppost, etc.) or by lines of contrast (for example a strong shadow).
Surface divisions offer a powerful way of supporting the story. It asks the viewer to compare and contrast between the different areas in the image, emphasising conflict, opposites, emotional difference, isolation or contradiction, or can be used to focus the viewer’s attention on the key part of the image. It also introduces new aspect ratios into the picture adding visual variety.
Each subdivision may employ a different type of space (deep, flat, limited, ambiguous) which will alter the visual intensity, for example using both flat and deep space, will have more visual intensity than just flat space.
Examples of surface divisions
Aspect Ratio
Aspect ratio is the proportional representation between the width and height of an image. Common aspect ratios are 3:2, 4:3 and 2.4:1 (widescreen). Though most films are made in a wide screen format, the aspect ratio can re-enforce the emotional intensity of the story, and allow (or constrain) some of the ideas above (such as surface division).
In the image above the grid introduces a new aspect ratio which emphasises the isolation of the subject.
Space - A Continuum
Though there are four main type of space, in reality there is a continuum, from deep to limited to flat space. Deciding which space cues to use, and therefore where you image sits on the continuum, will help give your work a unique visual identity.
Using the different types of space
Though some filmmakers primarily use one type of space or another throughout a film, they have also have the option to change the type of space used, shot to shot or from sequence to sequence, heightening or lowering the film’s visual intensity as the story progresses. When working with a single image, stills photographers don’t have this option, however the way present a collection of images, for example in a book or for an exhibition, offers at least a limited opportunity to use this powerful storytelling technique.
Final Thoughts
In writing this post, and searching for examples of different types of space, I’ve been struck by how many of my images use either deep, flat or ambiguous space and how little I’ve used limited space and surface division, both powerful story telling techniques. And with images that are essentially flat I’ve largely stuck to representing “reality” rather than take the opportunity to develop a signature style. These are definitely options I intend to work on as I evolve as a photographer.